Which Of The Following Measures How The Level Of Well-being In A Country Has Changed Over Time?

Well-beingness is a positive outcome that is meaningful for people and for many sectors of society, considering it tells u.s.a. that people perceive that their lives are going well. Good living conditions (east.k., housing, employment) are key to well-being. Tracking these weather is important for public policy. However, many indicators that measure living atmospheric condition fail to measure what people think and feel nearly their lives, such as the quality of their relationships, their positive emotions and resilience, the realization of their potential, or their overall satisfaction with life—i.e., their "well-being."^{1, 2} Well-being more often than not includes global judgments of life satisfaction and feelings ranging from low to joy.^{3, four}

• Why is well-being useful for public health?
• How does well-beingness relate to health promotion?
• How is well-being defined?
• How is well-existence measured?
• What are some findings from these studies?
• What are some correlates and determinants of private-level well-being?
• What are some correlates of well-being at the national level?
• What is the difference between wellness-related quality of life, well-beingness, flourishing, positive mental health, optimal health, happiness, subjective well-being, psychological well-existence, life satisfaction, hedonic well-beingness, and other terms that exist in the literature?
• What is CDC doing to examine and promote well-beingness?

Why is well-beingness useful for public health?

• Well-being integrates mental health (mind) and physical health (body) resulting in more holistic approaches to disease prevention and health promotion.⁶
• Well-being is a valid population outcome measure beyond morbidity, mortality, and economical status that tells u.s. how people perceive their life is going from their own perspective.^{one, ii, 4, v}
• Well-beingness is an outcome that is meaningful to the public.
• Advances in psychology, neuroscience, and measurement theory advise that well-being tin be measured with some degree of accuracy.^{ii, 7}
• Results from cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies notice that well-existence is associated with^{ane, viii}:
  • Self-perceived health.
  • Longevity.
  • Salubrious behaviors.
  • Mental and concrete illness.
  • Social connectedness.
  • Productivity.
  • Factors in the physical and social environment.
• Well-being can provide a mutual metric that can assistance policy makers shape and compare the effects of dissimilar policies (e.g., loss of greenspace might impact well-being more and then than commercial development of an area).^{4, 5}
• Measuring, tracking and promoting well-existence tin can be useful for multiple stakeholders involved in disease prevention and health promotion.

Well-beingness is associated with numerous health-, chore-, family unit-, and economically-related benefits.⁸ For example, higher levels of well-being are associated with decreased risk of disease, illness, and injury; better allowed performance; speedier recovery; and increased longevity.^9-13 Individuals with high levels of well-being are more productive at work and are more likely to contribute to their communities.^{4, 14}

Previous research lends support to the view that the negative affect component of well-being is strongly associated with neuroticism and that positive affect component has a like association with extraversion.^{xv, 16} This research also supports the view that positive emotions—central components of well-being—are non merely the opposite of negative emotions, only are independent dimensions of mental health that can, and should be fostered.^{17, 25} Although a substantial proportion of the variance in well-being tin exist attributed to heritable factors,^{26, 27} environmental factors play an as if not more important function.^{four, v, 28}

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How does well-being relate to health promotion?

Health is more than the absence of affliction; information technology is a resource that allows people to realize their aspirations, satisfy their needs and to cope with the surround in order to live a long, productive, and fruitful life.^{25, 29-31} In this sense, health enables social, economic and personal development primal to well-being.^{25, 30, 31} Health promotion is the procedure of enabling people to increment control over, and to improve their health.^{25, thirty, 32} Environmental and social resources for health can include: peace, economic security, a stable ecosystem, and safe housing.³⁰ Individual resources for health can include: concrete activity, healthful diet, social ties, resiliency, positive emotions, and autonomy. Health promotion activities aimed at strengthening such individual, environmental and social resource may ultimately improve well-being.^{24, 25}

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How is well-beingness defined?

At that place is no consensus around a unmarried definition of well-being, but at that place is full general agreement that at minimum, well-being includes the presence of positive emotions and moods (e.g., delectation, happiness), the absence of negative emotions (e.g., depression, anxiety), satisfaction with life, fulfillment and positive operation.^{4, 33-35} In simple terms, well-beingness can be described as judging life positively and feeling good.^{36, 37} For public health purposes, concrete well-being (east.g., feeling very healthy and total of energy) is as well viewed as critical to overall well-beingness. Researchers from dissimilar disciplines have examined different aspects of well-being that include the following^{4, 34, 38, 39, 41-46}:

• Concrete well-being.
• Economical well-existence.
• Social well-beingness.
• Development and activity.
• Emotional well-being.
• Psychological well-being.
• Life satisfaction.
• Domain specific satisfaction.
• Engaging activities and work.

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How is well-beingness measured?

Considering well-existence is subjective, it is typically measured with self-reports.⁴⁰ The apply of self-reported measures is fundamentally unlike from using objective measures (e.1000., household income, unemployment levels, neighborhood law-breaking) often used to assess well-existence. The employ of both objective and subjective measures, when available, are desirable for public policy purposes.⁵

In that location are many well-being instruments bachelor that measure self-reported well-being in different ways, depending on whether 1 measures well-existence as a clinical outcome, a population health outcome, for cost-effectiveness studies, or for other purposes. For example, well-being measures can be psychometrically-based or utility-based. Psychometrically-based measures are based on the relationship between, and force amidst, multiple items that are intended to measure out i or more than domains of well-being. Utility-based measures are based on an individual or group's preference for a particular land, and are typically anchored betwixt 0 (decease) to 1 (optimum wellness). Some studies support employ of single items (east.g., global life satisfaction) to measure well-beingness parsimoniously. Peer reports, observational methods, physiological methods, experience sampling methods, ecological momentary cess, and other methods are used by psychologists to mensurate unlike aspects of well-being.⁴²

Over the years, for public health surveillance purposes, CDC has measured well-being with unlike instruments including some that are psychometrically-based, utility-based, or with unmarried items:

Public Health Surveillance

Survey	Questionnaires/questions
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)	General Well-Being Schedule (1971–1975).43,44
National Health Interview Survey (NHIS)	Quality of Well-being Scale.45 Global life satisfaction. Satisfaction with emotional and social support. Feeling happy in the past 30 days.
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Organization (BRFSS)	Global life satisfaction. Satisfaction with emotional and social back up.47, 48
Porter Novelli Healthstyles Survey	Satisfaction with Life Scale.49 Meaning in life.50 Autonomy, competence, and relatedness.51 Overall and domain specific life satisfaction. Overall happiness. Positive and Negative Bear upon Scale.52

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What are some findings from these studies?

• Data from the NHANES I (1971–1975), institute that employed women had a higher sense of well-existence and used fewer professional services to cope with personal and mental wellness issues than their nonemployed counterparts.⁵³
• Data from the 2001 NHIS and Quality of Well-Being scale, a preference based calibration which scores well-beingness between 0-1, found that males or females between the ages of 20–39 had significantly ameliorate well-existence (scores ≥ 0.82) compared with males or females forty years of age or older (scores >0.79).⁵⁴
• Data from the 2005 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Organisation found that 5.six% of The states adults (about 12 million) reported that they were dissatisfied/very dissatisfied with their lives.⁴⁸
• Information from the 2005 BRFSS found that nigh eight.6% of adults reported that they rarely/never received social and emotional support; ranging in value from four.2% in Minnesota to 12.four% in the US Virgin Islands.⁴⁷
• Based on 2008 Porter Novelli HealthStyles data.⁵⁵
  • 11% of adults felt cheerful all of the time in the by 30 days.
  • 15% of adults felt calm and peaceful all of the time in the past 30 days.
  • thirteen% of adults felt full of life all of the time in the by xxx days.
  • 9.8% of adults strongly agree that their life is close to their ideal.
  • nineteen% of adults strongly agree that they are satisfied with their life.
  • 21% of adults strongly agree that their life has a clear sense of purpose.
  • 30% of adults strongly agree that on most days they feel a sense of accomplishment from what they do.

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What are some correlates and determinants of individual-level well-being?

There is no sole determinant of individual well-beingness, but in general, well-being is dependent upon practiced health, positive social relationships, and availability and access to bones resources (due east.g., shelter, income).

Numerous studies take examined the associations betwixt determinants of private and national levels of well-being. Many of these studies have used different measures of well-being (eastward.g., life satisfaction, positive impact, psychological well-being), and different methodologies resulting in occasional inconsistent findings related to well-beingness and its predictors.^{37, 56} In general, life satisfaction is dependent more than closely on the availability of basic needs existence met (food, shelter, income) also as access to modern conveniences (e.chiliad., electricity). Pleasant emotions are more closely associated with having supportive relationships.⁵

Some general findings on associations between well-existence and its associations with other factors are as follows:

Genes and Personality

At the private level, genetic factors, personality, and demographic factors are related to well-beingness. For example, positive emotions are heritable to some caste (heritability estimates range from 0.36 to 0.81), suggesting that there may be a genetically adamant set-signal for emotions such as happiness and sadness.^{26,27,57,58,59} However, the expression of genetic furnishings are oftentimes influenced past factors in the environment implying that circumstances and social conditions practice thing and are actionable from a public policy perspective. Longitudinal studies have plant that well-being is sensitive to life events (e.g., unemployment, marriage).^{60, 61} Additionally, genetic factors alone cannot explicate differences in well-existence betwixt nations or trends within nations.

Some personality factors that are strongly associated with well-being include optimism, extroversion, and self-esteem.^{20, 62} Genetic factors and personality factors are closely related and tin interact in influencing private well-being.

While genetic factors and personality factors are important determinants of well-being, they are across the realm of public policy goals.

Age and Gender

Depending on which types of measures are used (e.m., life satisfaction vs. positive affect), age and gender also have been shown to be related to well-being. In full general, men and women take similar levels of well-beingness, just this blueprint changes with age,⁶³ and has changed over time.⁶⁴ There is a U-shaped distribution of well-being by historic period—younger and older adults tend to have more than well-existence compared to heart-aged adults.⁶⁵

Income and Work

The human relationship between income and well-being is complex.^{4, 39, 65} Depending on which types of measures are used and which comparisons are made, income correlates only modestly with well-being. In full general, associations between income and well-being (usually measured in terms of life satisfaction) are stronger for those at lower economic levels, but studies also accept found furnishings for those at higher income levels.⁶⁶ Paid employment is disquisitional to the well-being of individuals by conferring direct access to resources, as well as fostering satisfaction, meaning and purpose for some.⁶⁷ Unemployment negatively affects well-being, both in the short- and long-term.^{61, 65, 67}

Relationships

Having supportive relationships is one of the strongest predictors of well-being, having a notably positive consequence.^{68, 69}

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What are some correlates of well-being at the national level?

Countries differ substantially in their levels of well-being.^{4, seventy} Societies with higher well-existence are those that are more than economically developed, have effective governments with depression levels of abuse, accept high levels of trust, and can meet citizens' basic needs for nutrient and health.^{4, 5} Cultural factors (e.thou., individualsm vs. collectivism, social norms) also play a role in national estimates of well-beingness.^lxx

What is the departure between health-related quality of life, well-being, flourishing, positive mental wellness, optimal health, happiness, subjective well-being, psychological well-existence, life satisfaction, hedonic well-existence, and other terms that exist in the literature?⁷¹

Some researchers suggest that many of the terms are synonymous, whereas others annotation that there are major differences based on which dimensions are independent and contribute nearly to well-being.^{37, 71} This is an evolving science, with contributions from multiple disciplines. Traditionally, health-related quality of life has been linked to patient outcomes, and has generally focused on deficits in functioning (e.g., pain, negative affect). In contrast, well-being focuses on assets in operation, including positive emotions and psychological resource (eastward.g., positive impact, autonomy, mastery) as key components. Some researchers have drawn from both perspectives to mensurate concrete and mental well-being for clinical and economic studies. Subjective well-beingness typically refers to self-reports assorted with objective indicators of well-being. The term, "positive mental health" calls attention to the psychological components that comprise well-being from the perspective of individuals interested primarily in the mental health domain. From this perspective, positive mental health is a resource, broadly inclusive of psychological avails and skills essential for well-beingness.^{24, 25} But, the latter generally excludes the physical component of well-being. "Hedonic" well-being focuses on the "feeling" component of well-existence (e.thou., happiness) in contrast to "eudaimonic" well-beingness which focuses on the "thinking" component of well-being (e.g., fulfillment).³⁵ People with high levels of positive emotions, and those who are functioning well psychologically and socially are described by some equally having complete mental health, or as "flourishing." ⁴⁶

In summary, positive mental wellness, well-existence and flourishing refer to the presence of high levels of positive functioning—primarily in the mental health domain (inclusive of social health). Even so, in its broadest sense, well-being encompasses physical, mental, and social domains.

The reasons why well-existence and related constructs should be measured and evaluating how these domains tin can exist changed should help inform which domains (e.m., life satisfaction, positive affect, autonomy, meaning, vitality, hurting) should be measured, and which instruments and methods to use.⁷¹

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What is CDC doing to examine and promote well-being?

CDC'south Health-Related Quality of Life Program has led an effort since 2007 to examine how well-being tin can be integrated into health promotion and how information technology tin can be measured in public health surveillance systems.⁵⁵ A number of studies have examined the feasibility of existing scales for surveillance, including application of item-response theory to place brief, psychometrically audio short-form(s) that can be used in public health surveillance systems.^72,73 CDC and iii states (OR, WA, NH) collected information using the Satisfaction with Life Scale and other well-existence measures on the 2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Organization.⁷⁴ CDC also led the evolution of overarching goals related to quality of life and well-being for the Healthy People 2020External initiative.

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Resources

• CDC Good for you Living
• CDC Physical Activeness Basics

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Source: https://www.cdc.gov/hrqol/wellbeing.htm

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